二、 首段和尾段的寫作

　　上一講中我們介紹了段落的擴(kuò)展模式，也就是說(shuō)，我們已經(jīng)了解了文章中間一部分的敘述模式。根據(jù)四六級(jí)寫作的特點(diǎn)，一般首段和尾段都要自己補(bǔ)上，那么怎么才能寫好首尾段呢，下面我介紹一下，首尾段的寫作方式。

1．首段的寫作

　　首段的寫作方式一般為：
　　運(yùn)用事實(shí)性信息、調(diào)查或故事等引出話題，2）導(dǎo)入主題，然后提出自己的觀點(diǎn)，也就是文章的論點(diǎn)
　　首段開篇的方式常見的有：

1） 諺語(yǔ)法

　　由于諺語(yǔ)一般已經(jīng)被大家所接受，用諺語(yǔ)提出自己的觀點(diǎn)也容易被讀者所接受。

As the saying goes, "Money makes the mare go", but there are many things we can't buy with money, such as time and true love. …

2） 定義法

　　定義法是通過(guò)對(duì)文章中的關(guān)鍵詞做一些簡(jiǎn)單或正面或反面的解釋，限定其范圍，這樣比較有利于引出主題。

"Practice makes perfect" is an old saying. It tells us that it does not matter if we are clumsy at doing something. As long as we keep on trying and practicing, we will do a good job in the end.

3） 提問法

　　通過(guò)提問一個(gè)或一連串的問題，可以激發(fā)讀者的興趣，從而引出主題。

a. Do you have many friends? Are they similar to you or different from you? Which kind of friends do you prefer?
b. What is a good student? Different people may have different answers to this question.

4） 概括法

　　概括法指先總結(jié)文章內(nèi)容所涉及的現(xiàn)狀，然后引出主題。

In recent years, with the development of science and technology, the Internet has come into more and more homes and is playing a more and more important role in our work and daily life. It has become a must to us, but at the same time, Internet has also brought with it a lot of problems.

5） 故事法

　　故事法指用簡(jiǎn)單有趣的故事激發(fā)讀者的興趣，從而提出自己的觀點(diǎn)。如下面"Is Stress a Bad Thing?"

6） 引語(yǔ)法

　　"Just as eating without liking harms the health, learning without interest harms the memory and can't be retained." From Vinci's words we can see how important it is to motivate the students in language learning.

7） 調(diào)查法

　　為了得到讀者的認(rèn)可，文章的開始可以引出調(diào)查數(shù)據(jù)等，借以提出主題，如下面"Is Stress a Bad Thing?"的1）和"Can Schoolchildren Start Using the Internet?"的4）。

8） 假設(shè)法

　　假設(shè)法是指通過(guò)假設(shè)提出一種選擇，交代文章要涉及的問題，從而提出文章的主題。
Suppose you were offered two jobs, one is highly-paid but rather demanding, the other is less demanding, but poorly-paid, which would you prefer? …

9） 綜合法

　　具體寫作時(shí)，同學(xué)們沒有必要拘泥于一種方式，可以將上述方法總和起來(lái)。

首段示例1：

題目：Is Stress a Bad Thing?
提綱：

1）有人害怕壓力
2） 有人認(rèn)為壓力并不是一件壞事
3） 我的看法

　　" I can't stand the pressure and competition," explained one friend of mine when asked why he decided to quit his highly-paid but demanding position in his company recently. My friend may have his own reasons, but I don't think his decision is wise in reality.

　　It is true that my friend's case is not unique. In the last few years quite a number of men and women have chosen to do something less competitive at the cost of a comfortable, easy life a highly-paid job can obtain. They are afraid that the stresses and strains of work will rob them of joy and happiness and do them harm both physically and mentally. In fact, however, stress isn't the bad thing it is often supposed to be. Unless it gets out of control, a certain amount of stress is vital to provide motivation and challenge, and to give purpose and significance to an otherwise meaningless, idle life. People under stress tend to express their full range of potential and to actualize their own personal worth - the very aim of a human life.

　　Stress is a natural part of everyday life and there is no way to avoid it. What we can do is to develop our adaptive abilities to deal with it rather than to escape from it.

　　就這一標(biāo)題而言，根據(jù)所提示的提綱，首段的寫作還可以采用下列方式：

1) According to a recent survey, in the last few years, quite a number of young people have chosen to quit their demanding but highly-paid jobs. Although they may have their own respective reasons, I don't think their decision is wise in reality.

2) Which job do you prefer, a highly-paid but very competitive position or a poorly-paid but also less demanding job? You may choose the latter and have your own reasons, but I don't think this choice is wise enough whatever reasons.

3) Faced with a hard and demanding task, people's attitude varies widely: some try to avoid it and others regard it as a challenge to their abilities. In fact the choice we make between "flight" or "fight make the difference between leaders and mediocrities(平庸之輩).

　　首段示例2：

　　標(biāo)題：Can Schoolchildren Start Using the Internet?
　　提綱： 1）隨著科技的發(fā)展，網(wǎng)絡(luò)越來(lái)越普及；
　　　　     2）網(wǎng)絡(luò)有其優(yōu)點(diǎn)但也有缺點(diǎn)；
　　　　 　3）我的觀點(diǎn)

　　根據(jù)上面的提示，首段可有下列幾種方式：

1) Nowadays, using the Internet has become a fashion. Many parents begin to teach their children to use the Internet. However, there are diverse opinions on this. Some think it wise, but I don't agree with them.

2) Today, the Internet is becoming more and more common. It begins to play a more and more important role in our society and life. It's so useful that most adults are learning how to use it. What about children? Of course they can start using it.

3) Today, with the development of science and technology, the Internet is beginning to play a more and more important role in our life. More and more people are starting to use the Internet, including schoolchildren. However, I think schoolchildren are too young to start using the Internet.

4) According to a recent survey, Internet users are becoming younger and younger, and Internet bars have become a resort for schoolchildren who log in to chat or play games. Faced with this phenomenon, many people argue for measures to prevent schoolchildren from using the Internet, and I think they have their reasons.

2． 結(jié)論段的寫作

　　結(jié)論一般采用歸納概括、主題重述或提建議等方式。

　　常見的方式有：

1） 重述或總結(jié)主題

　　重述主題指于結(jié)論處以另外一種表達(dá)方式重申主題，與首段照應(yīng)。

　　Families offer us warmth and care. Friends give us strength and horizon. They both help us understand the world as it is. Both of them are the dearest parts in our life.

2） 提出建議

　　Since postcards do us more harm and good, since we have many other ways to convey our feelings and promote our friendship, I hope everyone will take actions now to stop using postcards.

3） 概括總結(jié)

　　As we can see from the above, living in the suburb we can stay away from pollution, lead an easy leisure time, and needn't invest too much money, so I prefer living in the suburb to living in the city.

4） 引用名人名言

　　In particular, I enjoy what Francis Bacon said "Studies serve for delight, for ornament and for ability."

5)綜合法

　　與首段一樣，結(jié)論段也可以是多種方法的綜合。一般說(shuō)來(lái)，總結(jié)加建議的比較多。

尾段示例1：

　　如"網(wǎng)絡(luò)"的結(jié)論段可以如下所示：

10） As we all know, the next century will become one of the Internet. Internet will become more and more important in both our daily life and our work. So I suggest that schoolchildren should start using the Internet.

11） So I think schoolchildren not only can start using the Internet, but also should start using it They are sure to benefit a lot from the internet.

12） Internet can help our children know the world, get useful information and enrich their knowledge. So I think schoolchildren can start using the Internet.

13） In a word (In conclusion/ In summary/ To sum up / In short), the Internet is playing a more and more important role in our life and it is helpful for children's growth both physically and mentally. It is better for them to start using the Internet as early as possible.

3．轉(zhuǎn)承語(yǔ)的使用

　　根據(jù)不同的段落要求，選擇適當(dāng)?shù)霓D(zhuǎn)承語(yǔ)

1) 比較對(duì)照
　　比較：like A, B …
　　Just as A, B …
　　A, similarly/correspondingly, likewise/in the same way, B …
　　對(duì)照： Unlike/ Contrary to/ As opposed to A, B …
　　A , however/on the other hand/in contrast, B ..
　　A …, B, however/on the other hand/in contrast, …

2)列舉

　　First/ Second (Next) / Third (Then)/ Last (Finally), …
　　The fist/ The second/ The third/ The last (The final)
　　Firstly/Secondly/Thirdly/Last(Finally)
　　One/Another/Still another/The last
　　The most essential/most important/primary/chief is …

3) 因果

　　as a result, consequently, therefore, hence, so, because of this, for these reasons, due to the fact that

4 起承轉(zhuǎn)合常用語(yǔ)

1）"起"的常用語(yǔ)

　　When asked about/ When it comes to/ Faced with …, some people
　　claim/think/argue/believe that …, but/while others …(differently)
　　Nowadays there is much/general discussion as to ….
　　With the development/improvement/growth of …,
　　Now, it is commonly/widely/increasingly believed/thought/held/acknowledge that …,
　　According to a recent survey/investigation/poll, …
　　Have you ever thought/wondered …?
　　Suppose …
　　As the saying goes, …

2) "承"的常用語(yǔ)

　　Those who hold ….
　　It is true that …
　　To be sure ..
　　First/Firstly …
　　The main/leading/underlying/root/ primary/chief/essential ….
　　"承接上文"的方式與文章的段落結(jié)構(gòu)有關(guān)，比較的與列舉的不同，與舉例的也不同。同學(xué)們應(yīng)根據(jù)具體的情況選擇適當(dāng)?shù)某薪诱Z(yǔ)。

3）"轉(zhuǎn)"的常用語(yǔ)

　　It sounds like a good(attractive) idea (suggestion), but they fail to understand (see, notice
There is probably an element of truth in the arguments (ideas), but they ignore a more important (basic) fact …
　　Closer examination (analysis), however, suggests (shows) that this argument (claim, idea) may not be borne of (supported) by the following evidence (facts, examples, statistics).
　　Close (careful) examination (analysis) of these arguments (ideas, suggestions), however, would reveal (suggest, prove) how flimsy (不足信的，不嚴(yán)密)(fallacious（靠不住的）, groundless（沒有根據(jù)的）) they are.
　　However logical (sound, forcible(有說(shuō)服力)) these arguments may be, they don't make sense (only skim the surface of the problem) when … is viewed the other way (taken into consideration).
　　As opposed to (Contrary to) the widely (commonly, generally) held idea (belief, view), new studies (facts) challenge (fail to justify) the opinion (view).
　　Good/Superior/Wonderful as …., it has its own disadvantages/ it brings its own problems.
　　They may be right about …, but they seem to neglect /fail to mention/take into account …
　　In all the discussion and debate over …, one important/basic fact is ignored/overlooked/neglected.
　　It is true that/ Admittedly, but it is unlikely/doesn't follow/doesn't mean that …
　　There is an element of truth in these arguments/statements, but they ignore a deeper and more basic/essential/important fact/factor …
　　In many cases, however, …
　　As far as .. is concerned, …

4) "合"的常用語(yǔ)

　　Experience/Evidence/All the facts suggest/show/demonstrate/ indicate that …
　　From what has been discussed above/Taking into account all these factors, we may safely 　　draw/reach/come to/arrive/ the conclusion that…
　　In conclusion/To sum up/In summary/In short/To conclude ….
　　It is important/necessary/essential that effective/proper/powerful actions/measure/remedies should be taken to …

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